Food is a crucial element in the life of inmates. It plays a key role in their physical and mental health 1. Nutritional deficiency remains a daily challenge in prisons of developing countries 2. A poor health condition among inmates is partly linked to an insufficient food intake and to precarious conditions in prison settings 3. The lack of food and medicine supply affects seriously inmates’ health and life. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), apart from regular overcrowding problems noted in several central prisons, food is a main issue in the Congolese prison system. According to the United Nations Stabilization Mission in the DRC (MONUSCO) report on detention conditions in DRC prisons and jails, serious deficiencies in food, hygiene and healthcare continue to convert some prisons in real homes of the dead 4. Most inmates are in poor health and diseases affect organisms weakened by malnutrition. Despite the warning signs launched by reports of the United Nations Organization Mission in the DRC (MONUC), Human Rights Section, in April and November 2004, the situation is far from being improved in prisons twelve years later 5. In this particular field, international and national standards continue to be violated with dramatic consequences (deadly for many inmates).

Nutritional status is deplorable because several years ago the Congolese state stopped providing food to inmates in numerous settings; only their family, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), charitable organizations/people, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and religious organizations help supporting inmates 6. Due to a high population density, poor prison conditions and insufficient budget assigned to food purchase, numerous inmates suffer from malnutrition. In the Central Prison of Mbuji-Mayi, food is only provided once a week. In April 2015, twelve people died as a result of malnutrition and lack of medical care. In a recent study performed in that prison, known as the biggest of Kasai Oriental province, 368 inmates out of 733 (50.2%) had a body mass index (BMI) below 18.5 kg/ m²7. As few data on that subject are available, and the recent situation being unknown, the present study aimed at assessing malnutrition, especially the severe form, in prison, through the evaluation of inmates’ nutritional status, in order to identify severe malnutrition and associated factors in the Central Prison of Mbuji-Mayi.

The study was approved by the Mbuji-Mayi Inter-University Ethical Committee (COE-IU) (No Approbation: MBM/COE-IU/027/2014) and performed with the consent of local authorities (Provincial Ministries of Health and Justice). All prisoners provided a free and informed oral consent for their participation. They were explained the nature, objective, and duration of the study, as well as what we expected from them; furthermore, they were also given some time for reflection. When malnutrition was diagnosed, the patient was provided immediate healthcare. All terms of data use were respected in accordance with the DRC law and requirements. Anonymity was guaranteed.

Results were expressed by mean and standard deviation (SD) for quantitative variables and as numbers (%) for categorical findings. The Chi-squared test or a Fisher exact test was used to analyze contingency tables. Odds ratios (OR) and their 95% confidence interval (95%CI) were estimated by univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses. A backward stepwise variable selection procedure was applied to identify factors independently associated with a high risk of severe malnutrition. Results were considered at the 5% critical level (P≤0.05). Data were analyzed by Stata™ (version12.0).

The 300 inmates, mostly men (88.7%), had a mean age of 33 ± 10 years. Inmates aged between 30 and 49 represented 48.7% followed by those under 30 who represented 43.3%. About 90% of them were jailed for more than 6 months. An infection, such as TB, HIV and/or intestinal infection, was recorded in more than half of them (61%). Five inmates (1.7%) died from severe malnutrition during the study period (Table 1).

Based on BMI, most inmates (51.3%) were underweighted. When considering NRI categories, malnutrition was severe among 24.0% of inmates while it was moderate for 62.0% of them (Table 2).

As seen in Table 3, no significant difference was found between inmates who were suffering from severe NRI-based malnutrition and the others, when considering sociodemographic variables, smoking status and alcohol consumption. Severe malnutrition however was more frequent among inmates whose meals were provided by the prison, for those who were suffering from TB, HIV and/or intestinal diseases, and when the length of incarceration was ≥ 6 months. Logistic regression analysis coupled with a backward variable selection procedure confirmed that length of incarceration > 6 months, origin of meals from prison and presence of infection were the only independent factors significantly associated with malnutrition. Inmates who had spent more than 6 months in prison had a 5-fold higher risk of malnutrition compared to other inmates. The risk of developing severe malnutrition was 4.7 times higher for inmates whose meals were exclusively provided by the prison. The presence of TB, HIV and/or intestinal infections was also significantly associated with the risk of malnutrition (adjusted OR = 2.6)(table 4).

This study conducted in the Central Prison of Mbuji-Mayi (DRC) assessed the nutritional status of inmates with the goal to identify subjects with severe malnutrition and to highlight potentially associated risk factors. The overall prevalence of severe malnutrition reached 24%, while moderate malnutrition affected 62% of inmates. Similar results were reported by the NGO “Doctors without Borders” in Guinea: severe malnutrition reached 22% in Mamou, 21% in Guéckédou and 13% in Boké 13. The prevalence observed in Mbuji-Mayi was slightly lower compared to other African reports. Olubodun et al. 14 estimated a 48.1% prevalence of malnutrition in the prison of a Nigerian developing community. On the other hand, a higher prevalence (46.2%) was reported in North Gondar and in northeast Ethiopia 15. Such difference could be explained by the wide range of tools used to assess nutritional risk and other factors such as those related to organization and conditions of detention in these prison settings.

Adequate nutrition is a fundamental human right; inmates should benefit from healthy food for a better health. Our study revealed that the origin of meals was closely related to severe malnutrition. Inmates who were exclusively fed with prison meals were 5 times more at risk to develop severe malnutrition compared to those receiving meals prepared by their family or an NGO. The lack of access to a diversified food, rich in nutrients, is frequently observed in DRC prisons. The budget for food is almost non-existent. Enough food, as a fundamental right, is denied to most inmates; thus, weight loss and death occur, especially among inmates infected by TB and/or HIV 5. Inmates who were initially fragile because of their health status and those who had spent more than 6 months in prison were 5 times more likely to suffer from severe malnutrition compared to other inmates. A long-lasting incarceration is a risk factor, especially in DRC prisons, which have become places of deprivation of all fundamental rights despite the UN Charter 16. Such conclusion is in line with the results of previous studies performed in Gondar and Bahirdar, in northwest Ethiopia 15. Our results also showed that inmates who were suffering from HIV, TB and/or intestinal infections were twice more likely to develop severe malnutrition; this is due to the lack of protein rich meal, loss of appetite, vomiting and nauseas, which are frequent consequences of antiretroviral and anti-tuberculosis drugs-related secondary effects, the difficulty swallowing because of oral candidiasis or ulcer 171819. In our case, no association was evidenced between sex, age of inmate, tobacco smoking or alcohol consumption, and the occurrence of severe malnutrition in prison. Contrary to our results, some authors observed that women in prison had a muscular mass less developed and a higher proportion of total body fat compared to men, for an equivalent BMI 20. This could increase the prevalence of malnutrition in men, as sex and muscular mass can affect the relation between BMI and body fat 20. A significant association between infections and severe malnutrition was highlighted in our study: inmates suffering from TB, HIV and/or intestinal infections were 3 times more likely to develop severe malnutrition. Similar observations were documented in previous studies 2122232425. The HIV/TB complex and malnutrition, especially in DRC prisons, weaken inmates and are responsible for several deaths. It should be noted that during the investigation period, 5 inmates (1.7%) died in unexplained cachexic conditions. Our observations confirm previous findings in the way that poor and insufficient food increases the risks of exposure to a disease and accelerates its evolution 4. A 2004 study performed in the Guinean prison named ‘Central House’ showed that 10 to 15% of inmates were suffering from malnutrition; seven inmates were dying per month, either of malnutrition or of diseases 25. The poor conditions of detention were exacerbated by the lack of appropriate and in time-health care. In prison, medical care is generally of poor quality. Food, as a fundamental right, is essential for inmates and should receive more attention. Food is one of the most important aspects in the life of inmates; it helps them disconnect from daily routine but also decreases hostility and antisocial behaviour.

The range of tools used to assess nutritional risk is an obstacle to the comparison with other studies. Differences related to scales, scoring system and thresholds selected restrict the possibility to compare prevalence data. It is important to note that comparing prevalence with other studies is also limited due to differences in age categories and the threshold defining severe malnutrition in the elderly. In our study, the usual weight was estimated on the basis of what people told the investigators, due to lack of knowledge on the weight of several inmates upon their arrival at the prison.

This study showed that 25% of inmates of the Central Prison of Mbuji-Mayi (DRC) were suffering from severe malnutrition. Health status of inmates receiving homemade or NGO meals was less alarming compared to inmates whose meal was provided by the prison, in low quantity and once a day. Malnutrition is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in developing countries. An incarceration of more than 6 months expose inmates to malnutrition, especially individuals suffering from TB, HIV and/or intestinal infections. A correct and well-balanced food, in sufficient quantity, is crucial to avoid exposure to severe malnutrition and potential mortality. The involvement of national and regional authorities is essential to avoid transforming the prison rehabilitation centre in a site of infection, with all negative consequences that may arise.

The dataset(s) supporting the conclusions of this article is (are) included in the article (and its additional file(s): Tables).

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MGK is the main author: he designed the study, participated to the data collection and analysis. AA, GDC, LO and DG supervised the overall design and conduct of the work. FII took part to the data collection and statistical analysis. All authors were involved in the preparation of the manuscript, edition, and finalization of the version to be published and agreed to be accountable for all aspects related to the integrity of the work. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.